3. Each word effects the meaning of the object it designates.
4. The differences of semantic content of the equivalent words in two languages.
5. Each language has its own typical rules of combinability.
6. Most difficulties are encountered when translating the so called pseudo international words i.e. words which are similar in form in both languages, but differ in meaning or use.
The Absence of correspondences, or realie words are denoting objects, phenomena and so on, which are typical of a people. In order to render correctly the designation of objects referred to in the original and image associated with them it is necessary to know the tenor of life epoch and specific features of the country depicted in the original work.
The following groups of words can be regarded as having no equivalents:
realiae of everyday life words denoting objects, phenomena etc., which typical of a people;
proper names and geographical denominations;
addresses and greetings;
the titles of journals, magazines and newspapers;
weights, linear measures etc.
When dealing with realiae it is necessary to take special account of the pragmatic aspect of the translation, because the «knowledge gained by experience» of the participants of the communicative act turns out to be different [2].
1. Curme G.O. English Grammar. N.Y., 2003, p. 251.
2. Мухина Н.Б. Учебно-методический комплекс по курсу «Теория и практика перевода». 2011.
LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS
УДК 8116-027.511=111
ELAEVA E.
Ufa State University of Economics and Service (Ufa)
Language is not only unique to humans and diverse but there are also common features between languages. About five thousand languages are spoken in the world today but there is a basic unity that underlies their diversities. Many of the worlds languages show similar principles. 'Language universals' are a set of principles which describe systematic patterns in languages in other words they describe what the world's languages have in common. These language universals classify entire languages into categories which are then based on shared properties. There exist three approaches to explaining universals. These are namely the monogenesis, the innateness including other psychological explanations and the functional and pragmatic explanations. The term monogenesis means that there is a genetic origin which holds true for all languages of the world. The hypothesis is that there once existed and ancestor language from which all the languages of the world developed. This would also implicate that each of the universals have been part of the ancestor language and that they have passed on through all the stages the language went through. Authorities who speak about innateness are simply arguing that in the absence of any alternative coherent explanation for language universals, innateness is the only possibility that can be. Instead of serving to deepen our understanding of language universals, the absence of any possibility of testing innateness as an explanation serves rather to divert researchers from considering alternatives that may be testable [1]. The last approach is the one of the functional and pragmatic explanations. The argument concerning this approach is that through certain universals language becomes more functional. This contradicts the numerous instances where language seems to be dysfunctional. The existence of synonyms seems to be a needless luxury and even more clearly the existence of homonyms [2].
There are so many linguistic features which the languages of the world share. Some are basic, such as the notion of sentence or verb, some are complex, such as Wh- movement. The rules which all languages have in common, with either very few, or no exceptions are called absolute universals. Lets consider the following statements.
All languages are equipped with the grammatical structures needed to give orders, negate a thought, and ask a question.
All languages use verbs which reflect the past, present, or future.
All languages possess a finite set of phonemes (sounds) including vowels and consonants which are strung together to form words.
All languages share the basic categories of words, such as nouns, verbs, description words, relative clauses, and a method for counting.
All languages use pronouns.
All languages include any blend of or subcategory of the basis five colors: red, blue, yellow, black and white. The colors which are included in every language are red, white, and black [3].
To sum up, we must say that Language Universals are unique in starting with the assumption that the best way to approach these and related questions is through a dialogue between a wide range of disciplines, including linguistics, cognitive neuroscience, philosophy, computer science and biology.
1. Comrie 1981: 24. The languages of the Soviet Union
2. Comrie 1981: 25. The languages of the Soviet Union
3. Chomsky, N. (1988). Language and problems of knowledge. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press